Agro-Pastoral Production and Food Security in the North Kerio River Basin : Pathways Toward Sustainable Development
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.67371/ajsss.v1i1.1Keywords:
Food Insecurity, Resource Conflict, Agro-Pastoral Production, Sustainable DevelopmentAbstract
Weak land tenure governance and food insecurity have been at the core of the North Kerio Valley Basin. Limited land access and insecure tenure rights, as well as climate change, natural resource degradation, rapid population growth, urbanisation, dietary changes, and economic development, among others, have impacted landholding patterns and food security, hindering sustainable development. Strengthening land tenure governance through tenure security and equitable access to land can promote sustainable agriculture and food systems. This study examines agro-pastoral production and food insecurity in the North Kerio Valley Basin and their pathways towards sustainable development.
Two questions guided the study:
(i) What is the nature of agro-pastoral production among the agro-pastoral communities in the Northern Kerio River Basin? and
(ii) What mitigation measures enhance food security and socio-economic development?
The study site was the North Kerio Valley Basin, a triangular area bordered by Kolowa Ward of Tiaty in Baringo County, Endo Ward of Elgeyo Marakwet County, and Lomut Ward of West Pokot County. A quantitative research approach and a survey design were employed in the study. A sample of 387 respondents was selected, and data were collected via a questionnaire. The study was anchored in the themes of emerging climate change and environmental security, given resource-based conflicts over land holdings and food insecurity, as well as the measures taken to mitigate the situation. The study's findings indicate that 99.9% of the population does not have title deeds; hence, land ownership becomes a significant source of conflict, and land is not adequately used. Poor land tenure governance in the North Kerio River Basin threatens food security and agro-pastoral production by deterring investments in land, fuelling conflicts between resource users, and inhibiting the adoption of sustainable and resilient agricultural practices. Rapid land reforms, including land adjudication and demarcation, should be implemented in the Kerio Valley Basin to reduce land conflicts and ensure their proper utilisation.
References
Abdi, K. (2003). The Early Development of Pastoralism in the Central Zagros Mountains. Journal of World Prehistory, 17(4), 395–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOWO.0000020195.39133.4c
Adams, W., Watson, E., & Mutiso, S. (1997). Water, Rules and Gender: Water Rights in an Indigenous Irrigation System, Marakwet, Kenya. Development and Change, 28(4), 707–730. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00061
Adger, W. N., Arnell, N. W., Black, R., Dercon, S., Geddes, A., & Thomas, D. S. (2015). Focus on environmental risks and migration: causes and consequences. Environmental Research Letters, 10(6), 060201. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/6/060201
African Union. (2020). Second Biennial Report to the AU Assembly on implementing June 2014, Malabo Declaration. Africa Union Commission, AUC. Thirty-nine (39th) Ordinary session Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/38119-doc-2019_biennial_review-en.pdf
Akuja, T. E., & Kandagor, J. (2019). A review of policies and agricultural productivity in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS), Kenya: The case of Turkana County. Journal of Applied Biosciences, 140(1), 14304. https://doi.org/10.4314/jab.v140i1.9
Alden Wily, L. (2018). Collective land ownership in the 21st century: Overview of global trends. Land, 7(2), 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/land7020068
Alden Wily, L. (2018). The Community Land Act in Kenya Opportunities and Challenges for Communities. Land, 7(1), 12. MDPI AG. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land7010012
Al-Maruf, A. (2017). Enhancing disaster resilience through human capital: prospects for adaptation to cyclones in coastal Bangladesh (Doctoral dissertation, Universität zu Köln).
Baliki, G., Brück, T., & Stojetz, W. (2018). Monitoring and impact analysis of the BMZ and EU-funded FAO resilience programme in Syria. ISDC, Berlin.
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. F. (2020). Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world–a historical perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 36(sup1), S20-S53. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
Buhaug, H., Benjaminsen, T. A., Sjaastad, E., & Theisen, O. M. (2015). Climate variability, food production shocks, and violent Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 10(12), 125015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/125015
Burchi, F. (2006). Identifying the Role of Education in Socio-Economic Development18. Human and Economic Resources Proceedings Book, 190.
Casana, J. (2013). Radial route systems and agro-pastoral strategies in the Fertile Crescent: New discoveries from western Syria and southwestern Iran. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 32(2), 257–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2012.12.004
County Government of Elgeyo Marakwet. (2018). County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP II) 2018 2022. https://elgeyomarakwet.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/bsk-pdf-manager/2019/05/Elgeyo Marakwet-County-CIDP-II-2018-2022-Popular-Version-compressed.pdf
County Government of West Pokot. (2018). County Integrated Development Plan 2018-2022. https://www.westpokot.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cidp2018-2022.pdf
Cherop, K., Muchanga, K., & Mulinya, C. (2019). A historical assessment of the Marakwet food security mechanisms c. 1850-2000. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 24, 48-59.
Dal Bó, E., & Dal Bó, P. (2011). Workers, warriors, and criminals: social conflict in general equilibrium. Journal of the European Economic Association, 9(4), 646-677. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01025.x
Dixon, J. A., Gibbon, D. P., & Gulliver, A. (2001). Farming systems and poverty: improving farmers’ livelihoods in a changing world. Food & Agriculture Org.
Nyariki, D. M., Wiggins, S. L., & Imungi, J. K. (2002). Levels and causes of household food and nutrition insecurity in dryland Kenya. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 41(2), 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/03670240214493
Egidi, G., & Salvati, L. (2020). Desertification risk, economic resilience and social issues: From theory to practice. Chinese Journal of Population, Resources and Environment, 18(2), 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjpre.2021.04.022
World Health Organisation. (2018). The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2018: building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Food & Agriculture Org.
Food and Agriculture Organisation. (2006). Integrated Food Security and Humanitarian Phase Classification (IPC) Framework, (Issue No. 3). https://reliefweb.int/report/world/policy-brief integrated-food-security-and-humanitarian-phase-classification-ipc
Flintan, F. E., Behnke, R. H., & Neely, C. (2013). Natural resource management in the drylands in the horn of Africa: Brief prepared by a technical consortium hosted by CGIAR in partnership with the FAO investment centre.
Flintan, F. (2019). Land use and tenure in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/100724
Fraval, S., Hammond, J., Wichern, J., Oosting, S. J., De Boer, I. J., Teufel, N., ... & Van Wijk, M. T. (2019). Making the most of imperfect data: a critical evaluation of standard information collected in farm household surveys. Experimental Agriculture, 55(2), 230-250.
Food Security Information Network. (2018). Global Report on Food Crises; Food Security Information Network. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsin/docs/global_report/2018/GRFC_2018_Full_report_EN.pdf
Fyles, H., & Madramootoo, C. (2016). Key Drivers of Food Insecurity. In Emerging Technologies for Promoting Food Security (pp. 1–19). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-335 5.00001-9
Giacometti, A., Teräs, J., & Aalto, H. (2019). Social and economic resilience in the Bothnian Arc cross border region. Nordregio. https://doi.org/10.6027/R2019:11.1403-2503
Golla, B. (2020). Agricultural production system in arid and semi-arid regions. J Agric Sc Food. Technol 7 (2): 234-244. DOI: 10.17352/2455-815x.000113
Government of Kenya. (2014). Household Baseline Survey Report; Elgeyo-Marakwet County, (Vol 1). www.asdsp.co.ke
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, Kenya. (2019). Kenya humanitarian situation report. https://www.unicef.org/media/74936/file/Kenya-SitRep-End-Year-2019.pdf
Grammarly. (2024). Grammarly (Version 1.2.205.1772) [aided in editing and proofreading]. https://www.grammarly.com/
Gurr, T. R., Marshall, M. G., & Khosla, D. (2001). Peace and Conflict 2001: A Global Survey of Armed Conflicts, Self-Determination Movements and Democracy.
Gurr, T. R., Woodward, M. R., & Marshall, M. G. (2005). Forecasting Instability: Are ethnic wars and Muslim countries different? Political Instability Task Force.
Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243–1248. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1724745
Higgins, D., Balint, T., Liversage, H., & Winters, P. (2018). Investigating the impacts of increased rural land tenure security: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of Rural Studies, 61, 34–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.05.001
High Level Panel of Experts. (2020). Food security and nutrition: Building a global narrative towards 2030. A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/ca9731en/ca9731en.pdf
Holden, S. T. (2020). Policies for improved food security: The role of land tenure policies and land market. In G. y. Sergio, R. Laura, & L. Kamel (Eds.), The role of smallholder farms in food and nutrition security (pp. 153–169). Springer Nature. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-030-42148-9.pdf
Holleman, C., Jackson, J., Sánchez, M. V., & Vos, R. (2017). Sowing the seeds of peace for food security. Disentangling the nexus between conflict, food security and peace (No. 2143-2019-4789).
Holling, C.S. (1973). Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 4: 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245
Huho, J. M., & Mugalavai, E. M. (2010). The effects of droughts on food security in Kenya. The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, 2(2), 61.
Okoti, M., et al. (2019). Kenya cereal enhancement programme climate resilient agricultural livelihood window (KCEP-CRAL). Farm level agricultural resilience and adaptation to climate change extension manual. https://kalroerepository.kalro.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/01cb5e57-723b-4016-9a3c 58c02ff3908c/content
Omollo, E. O., Wasonga, O. V., Elhadi, M. Y., & Mnene, W. N. (2018). Determinants of pastoral and agro-pastoral households’ participation in fodder production in Makueni and Kajiado Counties, Kenya. Pastoralism, 8(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-018-0113-9
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2022). Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems. Chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.005
Kaushik, S., Dharpure, J. K., Joshi, P. K., Ramanathan, A. L., & Singh, T. (2020). Climate change drives glacier retreat in Bhaga basin located in Himachal Pradesh, India. Geocarto International, 35(11), 1179-1198. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2018.1557260
Kipkorir D. & Kareithi J. (2013). Indigenous Irrigation and Food Security in Tot Division, Kerio Valley, Kenya. Journal of Anthropology & Archaeology Vol 1 (1) pg 12-27. www.aripd.org/ja
Kipyego R & Mugalavai, V. (2019). The Nexus of Drought Tolerant Crops and Food and Nutrition Security Among Smallholder Farmers In Kerio Valley, Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP). 9. p9354. 10.29322/IJSRP.9.09.2019.p9354
Lain, J., & Bishop, D. (2018). Resilience in Kenya: Impact evaluation of the'Building Resilience in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Northern Kenya'project.
Landesa (2012). Issue brief - Land rights and food security, Landesa. https://www.landesa.org/press-and media/issue-brief-land-rights-food-security/
Laugier, E. (2020). Reconstructing agro-pastoral practice in the Mesopotamian-Zagros borderlands: Insights from phytolith and FTIR analysis of a dung-rich deposit
Lloyd, W. F. (1833). Two lectures on the checks to population: Delivered before the University of Oxford, in Michaelmas Term 1832. JH Parker.
Lubowski, R. N., Vesterby, M., Bucholtz, S., Baez, A., & Roberts, M. J. (2006). Major uses of land in the United States. Economic Information Bulletin, Volume EIB 14. https://americandreamcoalition.org/openspace/MajorLandUse.pdf
Massey, Z. B., & Miller, C. H. (2018). Case studies on interethnic Conflict: A theoretical integration. International journal of intercultural relations, 66, 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2018.04.006
Maxwell, D. (2017). Livelihoods diversification and resilience in dryland areas for USAID resilience evidence forum. https://www.fsnnetwork.org/sites/default/files/Main%20Points%20 %20Livelihoods%20Diversification%20%28FINAL%29%20%282%29.pdf
Muricho, G., Manda, D., Sule, F., & Kassie, M. (2017). Smallholder agricultural commercialisation and poverty: empirical evidence of panel data from Kenya (No. 1916-2017-1364).
Murkomen, M. K. (2015). The Impact of Policing Strategies in Combating Cattle Rustling in Tot Division, Marakwet District. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(10), 174 185.https://files.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234674565.pdf
Murungweni, C., Van Wijk, M. T., Smaling, E. M. A., & Giller, K. E. (2016). Climate-smart crop production in semi-arid areas through increased knowledge of varieties, environment and management factors. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 105(3), 183-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-015-9695-4
Mwakubo, S. (2002). Land Tenure and Farm Level Soil Conservation in Semi-Arid Areas, Kenya
Ngaira, J. K. (2005). Hydrometeorological disasters and their impact on development: The Kenya experience. Maseno journal of education, arts and sciences, 5(1), 77-90.
Niang, A., Amrani, F., Salhi, M., Grelu, P., & Sanchez, F. (2014). Rains of solitons in a figure-of-eight passively mode-locked fiber laser. Applied Physics B, 116(3), 771-775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00340-014-5760-y
Nkonya, E. et al (2018). Land and natural resources degradation in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands, Kenya Technical Report
Odhiambo M. (2015). Securing Community Land Rights in the Kenyan ASALs: Available Legal Options. http://adaconsortium.org/index.php/ada-publications.htm
Opiyo, F., Wasonga, O., Schilling, J., & Mureithi, S. (2012). Resource-based conflicts in drought-prone North-western Kenya: The drivers and mitigation mechanisms.
Osumba, J. J. L., Recha, J. W., & Oroma, G. W. (2021). Transforming Agricultural Extension Service Delivery through Innovative Bottom–Up Climate-Resilient Agribusiness Farmer Field Schools. Sustainability, 13(7), 3938. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073938
Parry, J. & Awuor, C. (2010). Enhancing resiliency to drought in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands
Scholes, R. J. (2020). The future of semi-arid regions: A weak fabric unravels. Climate, 8(3), 43. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8030043
Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. New York.
Senda, T. S., et al. (2020). An assessment of the implications of alternative scales of communal land tenure formalisation in pastoral systems, Land Use Policy. Vol. 94, 104535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104535
Serdeczny, O., Waters, E., & Chan, S. (2016). Non-economic loss and damage in the context of climate change: understanding the challenges (No. 3/2016). discussion paper.
Shaw, R., Kim, Y. K., & Hua, J. (2020). Governance, technology and citizen behavior in pandemic: Lessons from COVID-19 in East Asia. Progress in disaster science, 6, 100090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100090
Shimeles, A., & Nabassaga, T. (2018). Why is inequality high in Africa? Journal of African Economies, 27(1), 108-126. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejx035
Thornton, P. K., Ericksen, P. J., Herrero, M., & Challinor, A. J. (2014). Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review. Global change biology, 20(11), 3313 3328. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12581
UNHCR. (2018). Syria emergency. http://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency. Accessed on October 23, 2018
Uvin, P. (1996). Tragedy in Rwanda: The Political Ecology of Conflict. Environment, 38 (3), pp. 6-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.1996.9933466
Whitford, H. M., et al. (2012). Evaluating the reliability, validity, acceptability, and practicality of SMS text messaging as a tool to collect research data: results from the Feeding Your Baby project. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 19(5), 744-749.
